Teaching English To Children With Learning Disabilities Education Essay

Teaching English To Children With Learning Disabilities Education Essay Introduction The world we are living in is undergoing major changes in a stunningly short amount of time. Everything is moving, everything is changing, including all the central systems upon which all civilized societies of the world work. Education systems around the globe are also in a constant reformation, trying to keep up with the individual and collective needs of the people, with the emergence of new technologies and with the modernity in general. I have decided to approach the issue of the children with learning disabilities, teaching English to them, because although the science and the world have evolved rapidly in the last century, it seems that there are still aspects of the society that are left alone or who are not given sufficient credit, perhaps from ignorance, or perhaps from unknowing what to do. Why children with learning difficulties? Because they represent a special category, which unfortunately is frequently omitted, and children with this condition are often placed in schools where there is no qualified staff to help them grow personally and professionally as they should. For avoiding confusion over what really a learning disability means, in the first chapter of my paper I thought it will be necessary to clarify the concept, by offering the definitions of several specialists. In this same chapter I will try to develop some theoretical concepts, such as the detailed description of the term and of the behavior involved, all of which are essential for understanding a student with Learning Disabilities. In the second chapter I aim to describe the circumstances in which English has become in recent decades the international language, and the importance and necessity of learning a foreign language in the socio-politic and economic actual context, especially for an ex-communist country in developing such the case of Romania is for over twenty years. In the third and final chapter, I will present the various methods and techniques of teaching English as a foreign language available for the children with learning difficulties, offering examples of several worksheets collected with the support of several English teachers. A short inroad to learning disabilities In this first chapter of my paper I want to analyze the issue of learning disabilities based on specialized readings, to make a brief insight into the history of the field research and an analysis of the factors underlying these abnormalities, announcing the features of this problem and some of the ways by which a child with learning difficulties can be traced in time to be helped. Children across the world live their true life adventure once they begin school. For each and every one of them it is a long awaited moment and most are able to perfectly adapt the educational environment. Still, there are some children for whom school proves to be a chore: the children who are faced with learning disabilities (LD). They represent a special category which unfortunately is often overlooked. Historical overview The approach towards children with learning disabilities is not new at all. It exists even from the invention of school, but it was not until the 1960s that it was emphasized. The novelty in this area consists of the higher interest shown lately towards children with such a disability and finding ways throughout they can be helped to overcome the difficulties encountered while studying, or even through their whole lifetime. The man initiating the term was Samuel Kirk (director of the Federal Office of Educations Division of Handicapped Children between 1963 and 1964 and founding director of the Institute for research on Exceptional Children at the University of Illinois) , term which is considered to design a neurological disorder affecting children of normal intelligence, physical intactness, emotional health and average motivation, but who are facing troubles in using certain skills and achieving success at school and in everyday life. Defining the term proved to be a complex process and thus, over time many variants have been proposed by doctors, teachers and other specialists of the field. In the first edition of his research concerning the education of exceptional children in 1962, Kirk provided the following definition: A learning disability refers to a retardation disorder, or delayed development in one or more of the process of speech, language, reading, writing, arithmetic, or other school subject resulting from a psychological handicap caused by a possible cerebral dysfunction and/ or emotional or behavioral disturbances. It is not the result of mental retardation, sensory deprivation, or cultural and instructional factors. (Kirk 263) The definition and the term given by Kirk to design the disorder were immediately embraced by the parents in the first national conference on the subject, hold in the same year because it made it clear that there is a great difference between the mental issue and the learning one. The definition of Kirk also provided a solid foundation for further research and definitions in the field. According to Turkington and Harris most definitions suggest that learning disabilities are permanent, affect a range of language and mathematics functions, and are caused in part from problems within the central nervous system, as stipulated by the Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities, an organization formed by 12 agencies within the federal gouvernment in USA in 1987: Learning disabilities is a generic term that refers to a heterogenous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening skills, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities, or of social skills. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be due to the central nervous system dysfunction. Even though a learning disability may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions,[], a learning disability is not the direct result of those conditions or influences. (ICLD 222) Nowadays, it seems that the most widely used definition is the one included in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act from 2004 (Flanagan, Alfonso), which unlike most definitions, it refers to a specific learning disability: The term specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological process involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, spell, or do mathematical calculations. Such a term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. Such a term does not include a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; of mental retardation; of emotional disturbance; or of an environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. (IDEA, 2004, 602.30, Definitions) The number of students who are in such a situation is much higher than one might think. In England for example 2% of the population has a learning disability according to the British Institute of Learning disabilities, which also mentions the fact that the term learning difficulty is preferred to learning disability, because the society we live in is harsh and often the issue of learning difficulties is misinterpreted and identified with mental problems. Although a learning disability can often accompany such a problem, it is not a rule as specified in the definitions given by Kirk or stated in the IDEA. The distinction between the two terms can be seen rather at a cultural level (Americans prefer using disability and Europeans difficulty) rather to the specificity of the problem: Learning disability- is a general term that refers to individuals who find it harder to learn, understand and communicate. Other terms that are used to describe an individuals situation include complex needs or high support needs. Learning difficulty -is often used in educational settings and refers to individuals who have specific problems. Children and young people requiring special education needs are often described as having a learning difficulty. Throughout the world, learning disabilities affect at least 1 in 10 children. But nowadays a learning disability isnt considered anymore a handicap. People have learned to accept those with such conditions, and the personas from the public life had a great contribution. Apart from the classic examples of Albert Einstein who was unable to speak to the age of three, or the great Demostene who was a powerful public speaker in the ancient times, but who in his youth faced serious problems of stammering, there are also modern public figures who acknowledge freely that at a certain moment in their lives have been confronted with such a malady, such as actor Tom Cruise, singer Cher or director Steven Spielberg. Causes of learning disabilities The exact causes leading to these types of disabilities have not been clearly stated by specialists in their research. However, some reference was established for both parents and for teachers I order to use them in diagnosing children with LD. There are several factors that could possibly be blamed for such a disorder. Among these, the most important to remember are: genetic factors, organic factors and environmental factors. Genetic factors Evidence has shown that learning problems run in families. The odds that a child is learning-disabled are much higher when the in the family was previously reported at least one such case. There are maternal factors such as the use of drugs, alcohol or tobacco during pregnancy that have negative effects; it is well-known that mothers who smoke during pregnancy for example, are more likely to bear small babies, who are at a higher risk for learning disabilities; poor prenatal medical care and nutrition and prenatal injury or delivery complications can also be responsible. Organic factors Organic factors refer to dysfunctions that may appear in the central nervous system and damage the brain known as Minimal Brain Dysfunctions. Environmental factors There are several factors in the childs environment thought to affect his abilities of learning, such as nutritional deficiencies, inadequate learning experience or environmental toxins such as mercury or dioxins released into the childs body within his first year of life. For example, in economic deprived families there exist the possibility the child is never given the opportunity to go to school, and so he is a stranger to the domain of linguistic and cognitive activities. Unfortunately, such cases are becoming more and more common, especially in poor or developing countries. When it comes to the experience achieved in schools, researchers agree that poor quality teaching in schools may also cause a learning disability. There are cases when the use of inappropriate materials or a teaching style that does not allow the learner enough time to acquire basic skills, moving too fast can contribute to the unsuccessful activity of the student. There are many cases when students are labeled unconsciously by their teachers or peers as being lazy or stupid, but in fact their only problem is that their brains are designed to process information differently. Myrna Orenstein thinks these children are smart but stuck. So far there no treatment has been found to cure this condition, but children can be helped to learn successfully with the appropriate support from both parents but especially from teachers. However, it is necessary for a learning disabled child to be discovered in time. How do we recognize a learning disabled child? Because types of LD vary from child to child, so do the symptoms. Yet, there are some peculiarities in each case which can be very useful to the parents in the process of identifying this disorder, because after all they are usually the ones who first noticed abnormalities in their children. According to Siegel, there are some gestures and moves that a child should be able to do in the first years of life, upon which the pediatricians agree: A one-year-old should be able to reach for objects, roll over, stand with some support, follow objects, laugh, respond to no, and use a crayon. By the age of two, a child should respond to other children, walk, use some words, recognize familiar persons, point, and understand some simple shapes. A three-year-old should be able to move easily and go up stairs, be understood when speaking, use scissors, and draw pictures. By the age of four, a child should be able to catch a ball, copy shapes, count, identify some colors, dress without help, and play appropriate with peers. (Siegel,28) The first signs that parents and educators should be concerned of are: 1. Children often prefer to get isolated, they are shy, insecure, avoid playing with other children or sharing things. 2. The child has difficulties understanding and follows different instructions or memory issues, such as not remembering what he is saying. 3. He/She has difficulty distinguishing the left from the right, in identifying words or has an emphasized tendency to reverse letters, words, or numbers. 4. He/ She lack coordination while walking, in sports or much easier activities such as holding a pencil in the hand or tying his/her shoe lace. 5. Often, the child fails to understand the concept of time, is confused regarding yesterday, today and tomorrow. Obviously, the early the disorder is discovered, the better for the child, because we all know it is better preventing than remediating further effects. But if the child has already entered school without being diagnosed with a LD, then the signs should be more obvious for those surrounding him because he usually draw attention to himself: 1. He/she might get confused and wander homework, school books and other things. 2. The appearance of disruptiveness when in school- some LD children continuously bother, distract or in some way disrupt others-even the entire class. Their behaviour differ- some get engaged in some type of physical contact which disturbs classmates, while others make faces, talk or laugh at inappropriate times.(Blanton 29) 3. The child might have difficulties paying attention or staying focused, in processing, understanding, and expressing information through language.(Siegel 29) 4. He/ She might have trouble copying or getting ideas onto paper. 5. He/ she isnt very skilful, but it is usually creative in his/ her own way, and it is considered to be a constant source of amazement and delight by their teachers. Although at a first view it may seem a minor problem, the misdiagnosing of a LD child, or worse, ignoring his condition can lead to catastrophic effects later in his teenager or adult life. There are statistics which showed that juvenile delinquency can be easily associated with learning issues. Also, the child that is not being properly treated and helped and considered to be a laisser faire at school, may later abuse drugs or alcohol to pass more easily over the issue. When the world is as black as theirs is, anything that will allow a few hours of pleasure is welcomed. Suicide of course, is the ultimate out. But its rare. (Stevens 59) Testing for learning disabilities Many specialists refuse to test preschoolers for such condition, considering that they should first come into contact with the school environment and achieve some sort of results, and only after this basic steps they can further determine if a child needs therapy or not. Others, on the other hand, say otherwise, the statistics showing that a correct and careful testing may have an accuracy of 82% to 95% in determining whether a child aged five or fewer is dealing with LD. On the other hand, those who suffer from severe Attention Deficit Disorder, commonly associated with a specific learning disability can be more easily recognized even before starting kindergarten. Indeed, it is difficult to determine if a child under school age is learning-disabled. What is certainly though is the fact that no learning- disabled child should be ignored and that he should be given the necessary support beginning his early days of school. According to New and Cochran, another important factor standing in the way of the diagnosis of LD in children is the fact that learning problems or developmental delays can be precursors of other cognitive, behavioral, sensory, or developmental disorders, not just a learning disability.(New, Cochran,481) In order to diagnose children with LD there have been conceived a series of achievement tests meant to verify the intellectual and practical skills of the children. An achievement test represents a standardized measure of knowledge, information, or procedural learning which may asses general academic areas such as reading, writing, or mathematics, used by school systems to provide a standard measure of individual student performance, and to provide an aggregated measure of performance that enables school systems to evaluate their effectiveness. Achievement testes are also used as part of the diagnosis assessment of individuals to determine whether they have a learning disability and qualify for special education services. (Turkington and Harris 4) Types of specific learning disabilities There are several types of Learning Disabilities that prevent young students to lead a normal life both at school and outside, which may be related to the organization, storage and subsequent description of the information or knowledge gathered in the classroom. 1. Dyslexia is the first general term used to describe various learning problems. Eventually, these problems were subdivided and categorized to describe different learning disabilities. Because of this matter, Davis and Braun referred to dyslexia as the Mother of Learning Disabilities. Nowadays, the term designs only the disability related to reading. Characteristics of dyslexic students: The main problem of a dyslexic is that he is facing troubles reading words fluently; Dyslexics are more curious than average students; Students may find it easier to think mainly in pictures instead of words; Most dyslexics have a vivid imagination; Dyslexics are highly intuitive. Famous Dyslexics: Hans Christian Andersen, Winston Churchill, Leonardo da Vinci, Jay Leno. 2. Dyscalculia refers to problems of arithmetic and math nature, which are considered to be caused by a visual perceptual deficit. Characteristics of students with dyscalculia: At an early age they have problems organizing things logically, such as separating round objects from square ones; They have difficulties when learning to count or align numbers; They often have problems recognizing printed numbers; They have persistent issues in learning number facts such as multiplication tables or doing even the simplest numerical tasks; They have difficulties dealing with time and money notions. 3. Dysgraphia is the type of learning disability manifested through a writing disorder resulting in illegibility and of which cause is still unknown to this time. Acccording to Maria Chivers, there are two types of dysgraphia: a. Phonological dysgraphia- writing word as a pure sound spelling which is incorrect (especially seen on language learners). b. Visual dysgraphia- writing words, which are correctly spelt apart from some letters being reversed (ex: brink instead of drink). Characteristics of students who are facing dysgraphia: At an early age they avoid writing and drawing; They have trouble shaping the letters; It can be observed an inconsistent spacing between their letters or words; They often mixt cursive and print writing; They pronounce words out loud while writing. 4. Dyspraxia also known as the sensory integration disorder, is specific to students who have problems with motor coordination. Characteristics of students with dyspraxia: Young learners may have problems with picking up small items; during a sport class they may fall over for no apparent reason; They have problems following instructions, reading maps; They can change hand very often when writing because they are confused about whether to use their right or left; They have problems telling the time. 5. Central auditory processing disorder- consists of a difficulty processing and remembering language-related tasks. Characteristics of students: They are unable to take notes in class; They have difficulties in listening instructions and thus doing what they are being asked; They cant concentrate when someone is talking to follow the words in their correct order; They face great troubles when trying to learn a foreign language. 6. Non-verbal learning disorders The students who fall in this category are usually having troubles understanding nonverbal cues as body language or the association of pictures with words. They normally lack coordination, and thus, are being very clumsy. 7. Visual perceptual/ visual motor deficit- students have problems copying accurately, they complain about eye itching, they struggle with cutting things. 8. Language disorders, also referred to as aphasia or dysphasia are described as problems of students who are having troubles understanding and using spoken or written language. Language disorders represent the most common type of learning disabilities. Characteristics of students with a language-based disability: They have troubles expressing their ideas clearly; They may have problems learning the alphabet, new vocabulary and understanding questions; They have difficulties writing from dictation if the teachers lips cannot be seen. All of the above mentioned learning disabilities can be also included in the category of students dealing with memory disorders. Most of the characteristics of these students can be also found among the description of the others disabilities, such as: Inconsistency of the student when learning new information; The inability of them to follow instructions; The inability of delivering a correct message. The difficulty remembering what has been said or asked from them in class. Conclusions Throughout my whole paper I aimed to draw attention on students with learning difficulties, trying to point out the key elements of this condition and what should be considered when dealing with such children. I have tried to address myself especially to future teachers, the young generation, to whom is in their power to change the mentality and traditional methods so widely used in schools at the moment and which unfortunately fail to meet the students needs. To be able to cope with a student with Learning Disabilities, informing and training the parents and teachers is essential in order to provide solutions to specific issues related to the disability, targeting especially the teaching methods, behavior management strategies, as well as elements that can lead to the development of the collaboration between the school and the family, and, if required, the medical community. Along with behavioral intervention strategies, a coherent set of educational methods adapted to the condition are required. Also, it is recommended that this set of interventions and approaches to be backed up by individual and family counseling.   Ã‚   In terms of action principles and solutions for teachers, especially for the beginners, I tried to devote an entire chapter, the final one, because it was actually my goal from the very beginning to help to the development of new techniques , able to bear the special needs of a child with learning difficulties. Works cited Andrews, J. E., Carnine, D. W., Coutinho, M. J., Edgar, E. B., Forness, S. R., Fuchs, L. S., et al.(2000). Bridging the special education divide. Remedial and Special Education, 21, 258-260, 267. Anderson, P. L., Meier-Hedde, R. (2001). Early case reports of dyslexia in the United States and Europe. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 9-21. Anonymous. (1966). Minimal brain dysfunction in children:Terminology and identification.Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Association for Children with Learning Disabilities. (1986). ACLD definition: Specific learning disabilities. ACLD Newsbriefs, 15-16. Barsch, R. H. (1967). Achieving perceptual-motor efficiency: A space oriented approach to learning.Seattle, WA: Special Child Publications. Lyon, G. R. (1995a). Toward a definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 45, 3-27.

Interstate conflicts Essay

Introduction: Interstate conflicts are an integral part of the 21st century. The previous century was dominated by two world wars which were extremely violent and the repercussions of which the world is facing even today. It becomes essential to the study the different dynamics of interstate conflicts in order to expedite the processes of conflict management and resolution. There are different actors in a conflict environment and mass media is an important one among them. It is through mass media that conflicts are communicated to citizens. Mass media influences the citizen’s impression and image of the other i.e. the enemy in question. Proliferation of mass media technology has resulted into mediates conflicts. Conflict is continuously hammered upon the audience by various forms of media and hence the need to critically examine the various aspects of media’s role in conflict. This study deals with the most crucial conflict in South Asia i.e. of India-Pakistan. This conflict has shap ed the political and economic situation in the sub-continent. Mass media’s role in the India-Pakistan conflict has been much debated by scholars and media n professionals alike. What has not been explored is the possibility of Peace Journalism as opposed to mainstream War Journalism between the two countries. For this very purpose, the researcher has selected a Peace Journalism campaign named Aman Ki Asha (Hope for Peace). The campaign was launched on January 1st, 2010 by The Times of India (India) and The Jang Group (Pakistan) leading media houses of the respective countries. The campaign intends to create an enabling environment by facilitating dialogue between the two governments, encouraging people-to-people contact, thereby contributing to peace between the two countries. The initiative is the first of its kind by print media in the sub-continent. It seeks to satisfy its quest for peace by discussion on all contentious issues between the two countries through mediums like seminars, conferences, cultural festivals and all other forums of people to people contact. The campaign has also committed itself to positive use of print media to promote the benefits of peace and give space to each others point of view on issues of dispute. So far, Aman Ki Asha has organized literary and music fests, editors conferences, trade conferences and strategic seminars to realize its vision. Peace Journalism in the context of India and Pakistan assumes much importance because media in both the nations have been  vehicles to spread hate and animosity. Dissemination of stereotyped images and conventional messages has been at the forefront of media activity in India and Pakistan. During the Kargil War (1999), media contributed to building up of the war hysteria. Thus, media has essayed a by and large negative role when it comes to promoting peace between the two neighbors. Looking at the above mentioned arguments, Aman Ki Asha offers a different perspective on what kind of role can be played by the media in the course of India-Pakistan conflict. It is a Peace Journalism venture launched for the first time in the media history of the two nations. Its critical examination can offer insights into the workings of the Peace Journalism model in current and conflicting times. Moreover, it comes at a time when there looms a constant threat about a nuclear zed conflict in South As ia. Hence, the campaign has been chosen for the study. HEALTH: Use war as a metaphor for disease one which needs cure Incorporate the idea that was is a disease that has afflicted the people of both countries Peace has been used as a metaphor for a healthy state of mind and body. Healthy and progressive relations between India-Pakistan can be established through peace. Intricate connections between war-disease and peace-health have been affirmed by all the articles under this theme. Cooperating on health issues is seen as a possibility of widening dialogue among citizens of both countries. The articles under this theme depict the campaigns stress on cooperation between soft areas like health, IT, education, agriculture, tourism etc. However, there is no specificity on what kind of mechanisms ought to be developed to counter these health threats. There is not much information available in the articles on what kind of health threats do people in Pakistan face and also no commentary about the need to channelize money being overspent on defense by b oth nations on building better health infrastructure. Thus, there is no correlation established between the concept of perceived threat and neglect of peoples issues in both countries. People-to-People contact through sector-wise cooperation has been emphasized repeatedly but questions about its sustainability and impact have not been addressed at all. The styles in which the three articles have been written is starkly different The stand point taken by all the three stories is  pro-peace and pro-cooperation The article dated November 20, 2011 seeks stories from ordinary people on both sides of the border. It talks about ailing Pakistani children being operated in India free of cost It shows that the existing gap between the two nations can be successfully bridged by its common people. There is no exploration of the facet of Pakistanis contributing to Indian medicine and healthcare in any way but the vice-versa has been reported. (1) BUSINESS/ECONOMY: Business/trade has been identified as another important area of cooperation by the campaign. This is evident from the number of articles devoted to the theme. The articles on business identify visa restrictions prevalent between the two countries as the major hurdle for advancement of economic ties. They contain important statements from policy-makers marking a shift in the attitudes of governments on both sides when it comes to trading. Eg: Statement from Pakistani Commerce Minister first to visit India in 35 years. Trading ties with India for Pakistan are a subject of national interest not only for its government and citizens, but also for its military establishment which speaks volumes about the military being an important stake-holder in the political system of Pakistan. The militarys stake in the peace process may lead to an entirely different set of consequences which has not been debated at all. There is also a passing mention about the arrangement of SAFTA (South Asia Free Trade Agreement) but no analysis of how its workings have been hampered by the discord between India and Pakistan. Apart from increasing trade ties, the two nations as mentioned in the articles can also help each other in building institutions of commerce and capacity building of people in the field of business. Enhancing trade tries is not viewed as being restricted to the easing of the visa regime but has been furthered to action oriented cooperation. A possibility to strengthen regional cooperation through SAARC (South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation) has been envisioned. This shows the desire for normalcy not only in bilateral relations but peace for the entire South Asian region items etc the latter granting the same to Pakistan in 1996.(2) POLICY: Kabul river treaty between Afghanistan and Pakistan and how Indias aid to  Afghan developmental projects is creating mistrust between India and Pakistan. This is in consensus to the Peace Journalism model developed by Galtung which says that peace journalism does not restrict the number of parties in a conflict to two and also reports about other parties which may have an indirect or direct influence on the conflict. The article provides a factual and critical analysis to dispel suspicious thinking on part of Pakistan. This is an important component of peace journalism because if threats of conflict are critically analyzed, then they might reveal certain misconceptions and pre-conceived notions.(3) This a very good example of peace reporting and it stands out among the entire lot of articles mainly because it is analytical in nature as opposed to factual reports. One of the characteristics of peace journalism is looking at larger benefits of peace and cooperation, which this article successfully does. It also prescribes peace alternatives for eg: How India can facilitate an Afghan-Pak water treaty to remove suspicions about its role. CULTURE/ENTERTAINMENT: Culture may not seem to be an obvious avenue of cooperation between the two countries but it is an important one because culture has deep influence and impact on people. It is through culture and different forms of mass media that existing stereotypes can be dismantled. India-Pakistan cooperation in the sector of culture is not an institutionalized one. It has grown by itself. Over the time, Pakistani artists have been accepted whole-heartedly by the Indian audience and they have also gained commercially by being a part of the Indian entertainment industry. Their Pakistani identity has not come in the way of their achieving success in Bollywood. They have made a home for themselves in India, says the article, which essentially signifies the transcendence from rigid to flexible national identities in this case. There is a possibility for greater cooperation in sectors of film and music by the way of cross country productions between India and Pakistan. For eg: An India-Pak film festival. This is a very significant article because the Aman ki Asha campaign itself has been a venue for various cultural exchanges between the two countries through which the ability of culture to bring people together is demonstrated. (4) Civil Society and Peace Activists: A number of civil society organizations and NGOs are working to promote peace  and harmony between two nations. They include among others South Asian Free Media Association (SAFMA), Pakistan, Green circle Organization (GCO), Pakistan, Institute for Secular Studies and Peace (ISSP), Pakistan and Aman Ki Asha (Hope for Peace) a joint venture of two daily newspapers of India and Pakistan. (5) Peace between India and Pakistan has been stubbornly elusive and yet tantalizingly inevitable. This vast subcontinent senses the bounties a peace dividend can deliver to its people yet it recoils from claiming a share. The natural impulse would be to break out of the straitjacket of stated positions and embrace an ideal that promises sustained prosperity to the region, yet there is hesitation. There is a collective paralysis of the will, induced by the trauma of birth, amplified by false starts, mistrust, periodic outbreaks of violence, suspicion, misplaced jingoism and diplomatic doublespeak. Tragically, opportunity knocks unheard on doors bolted on the inside. Opportunism, that appeals to atavistic passions, elicits an instant response to every single knock. It is one of history’s ironies that a people who share so much, refuse to acknowledge their similarities and focus so avidly on their differences. We believe it is time to restore the equilibrium. Public opinion is far too potent a force to be left in the hands of narrow vested interests. The people of today must find its voice and force the rulers to listen. The awaam must write its own placards and fashion its own slogans. The leaders must learn to be led and not blindly followed. Skepticism about the given is often the genesis of faith. This skepticism has been brewing. It can be unleashed to forge a new social compact between the people of this region. The media in India and Pakistan speaks directly to the hearts and minds and stomachs of the people. It can help in writing a final chapter, adding a happy t wist to a story that seemed headed for tragedy. It can do so by shaping the discourse and steering it away from rancour and divisiveness. It has the maturity to recognize the irritants and obstacles to peace and will not take a timid stance towards the more intractable and contentious issues – whether relating to Kashmir, water disputes or the issue of cross-border terrorism. It can offer solutions and nudge the leadership towards a sustained peace process. It can create an enabling environment where new ideas can germinate and bold initiatives can sprout. The media can begin the conversation where a plurality of views and opinions are not drowned out by  shrill voices. It can cleanse polluted mindsets and revive the generosity of spirits which is a distinctive trait of the subcontinent. It can help cool the temperature and wean away the guardians from fortified frontiers. It can argue the case for allocating scarce resources where they are needed the most. We believe that this is an intervention whose time has come. We recognize that set backs will occur but these should not derail the process. We will need t o reach out and pluck the low hanging fruit in the beginning before we aim higher. Issues of trade and commerce, of investments, of financial infrastructure, of cultural exchanges, of religious and medical tourism, of free movement of ideas, of visa regimes, of sporting ties, of connectivity, of reviving existing routes, of market access, of separated families, of the plight of prisoners, will be part of our initial agenda.. They talk to each other about food, about music, about poetry, about films, about theatre and about the prolonged absences spawned by lost years. They share anxieties, discuss rising prices, seek advice on their children’s education, gossip about their in-laws, trade anecdotes and laugh at the foibles of politicians. We want to lower the walls so that the conversation continues. We owe our unborn generations the right to rise out of the depths of poverty, and squalour. It is embarrassing to read the statistics confirming our resistance to positive change in the fields of education, health and poverty alleviation. All social indices are s tacked against us and will remain so unless we scatter the war clouds that menace our skies. There are external elements at work in the region that thrive on the animosity between the two neighbours. They have a stake in keeping the region in turmoil. We need to combat them by making them irrelevant. A surge of goodwill and flexibility on the part of civil society and the media will push these forces back by denying them the raw material that manufactures hate. Our subcontinent needs to follow the footprints left behind by the great poets, sufi saints and the bhakts who preached and practiced love and inclusiveness. This is the land of Tagore and Ghalib, of Bulleh Shah and Kabir, of Nanak and Moinuddin Chisti. It is their spirit that will guide us in this journey. The one and half billion people of this region await the dawning of an age where peace, equality and tranquility prevails. This will happen when every heart beats with Aman ki Asha. What Aman ki Asha has achieved so far: Aman ki Asha has brought about a sea change in perceptions about each other among Indians and Pakistanis. Independent surveys in India and Pakistan have shown that as a result of the Aman ki Asha campaign, every positive perception about Pakistan in India has improved, and every negative perception has decreased. Some of the more significant changes in perception include. Before Aman ki Asha was launched only 4% Indians knew Pakistan’s point of view on the Kashmir; after 12 months of campaigning this increased by 425%, to 17%.(6) 1. The terror perception of Pakistan decreased from 59% to 29%. 2. The hope for sustainable peace â€Å"in our lifetime† increased from 13% to 29% 3. The desire for peace amongst Indians increased from 62% to 82% Indians familiar with and following the Aman ki Asha campaign had an approximately 40% more positive perception about Pakistan than those not familiar with Aman ki Asha. By openly and aggressively campaigning forthe resolution of disputes, establishing trade and investment relations and greater people to people contacts, Aman ki Asha has enabled all other stakeholders , NGOs engaged in peace-building, politicians, the business community and civil society leaders – to openly advocate normalization of relations between Pakistan and India far more rigorously than before. (7) Aman ki Asha has brought the business communities of both countries together in their individual capacities as well as the two largest business associations of India and Pakistan the Pakistan Business Council and the Confederation of Indian Industries. By strongly advocating economic collaboration and making presentations to the Commerce Ministry of Pakistan, Aman ki Asha has provided impetus to Pakistan’s grant of MFN status to India. By providing a platform for an open and honest discussion on contentious issues and giving voice to the strong desire of the people of both countries for peace, Aman ki Asha has given tremendous confidence to both governments to negotiate with an open mind and show flexibility (during his visit to Pakistan, the then Indian Foreign MinisterS.M. Krishna publicly acknowledged that, â€Å"the sea change in the relations between India and Pakistan during the last two years is largely attributable to the efforts of Aman ki Asha and we now share the optimism of Aman ki Asha†). All mainstream political leaders of Pakistan – Mian Nawaz Sharif, then Prime Minister Yusuf Raza Gillani, Altaf Hussain, Imran Khan, Liaqat Baloch – have strongly  endorsed the objectives and the positive contribution of Aman ki Asha. Aman ki Asha has not only captured the imagination of the people of both countries it has drawn wide and vocal support from the international community.(8) Conclusion: From the above analysis, we can conclude that the Aman Ki Asha campaign has focused on events like meetings of elites, dialogues with top level officials, policy makers, and subject experts to stress on sector wise engagement between the two countries. The campaign is an initiative to dismantle stereotypes prevailing in both countries and a subtle critique on the media which relies heavily on nationalistic discourse and demonizing the other. It has provided a scope for voices of peace to be heard and has ventured the path less treaded. It has tried to establish itself as a model of peace journalism by portraying the good work done by people on both sides of the border. The thrust of the campaign comes from the belief that peace can be achieved as a result of cooperation enhanced in different sectors. However, the articles of the campaign do not delve deeper and provide a critical commentary on various peace alternatives that can be made available to India and Pakistan. Certainly, pea ce reporting should be optimistic, but it should also be balanced with the aim of guiding future policy decisions. Many first time initiatives taken up by the campaign have been discussed in the articles (eg: meetings of delegations of subject experts, visit of Pakistan Commerce Minister etc). The campaign has been a platform for elites of the two countries to meet up and exchange ideas. The articles have not covered a single visit of an Indian delegation to Pakistan which may come out as a skewed form of 15 cultural exchange. This is not to conclude that vice-versa exchanges have never taken place. Only they have not been reported in the selected sample for study. The study is limited in the sense of not being able to study the Jang Group of publications for articles about the campaign that have appeared in the Jang newspaper and its other associates. The inability to study the Jang newspaper has been because of the language barrier. The articles in the newspaper are in Urdu. However, future studies can consider including The News International, a daily from Pakistan which has partnered Aman Ki Asha with The Times of India. Studies  including articles from Jang and The News International will be able to provide a more holistic and balanced view of the campaign. Also the paucity of news articles talking about exchanges between common citizens can be attributed to two reasons Since, the campaign is of a continuous nature it may not be possible to deem each exchange and interaction between representatives of both countries as news. Hence, only some which are considered to be important and of news value have been presented in the campaign. Foreign Policy is the domain of the elite and interaction between elites is perceived to be of much more importance than between ordinary citizens to bring about an effective change in the attitudes of policy makers. Despite the lacunae in the articles analyzed, the campaign comes extremely close to the normative prescriptions developed by Galtung for a Peace Journalism model. As has been observed in the data analysis section, all the articles conform to the selected considerations in some or the other way. All considerations may not apply at the same time to a particular article. Through analysis, there has been an attempt to depict the underlying nuances of the documents which may not be quite apparent to the reader. The campaign thus, serves as a Peace Journalism model the first of its kind in the context of India-Pakistan and assumes not just greater importance but also greater responsibility to meet the challenges that lie. References: 1 Patel, T. (2005). News Coverage and Conflict Resolution: Aid or Impediment. Unpublished M.Phil Dissertation, University of Queensland. Australia. 2 http://amankiasha.com/faqs.asp Accessed on February 23, 2012 3 Chattarji, S. (2008). Tracking the Media: Interpretations of Mass Media Discourses in India and Pakistan. Routledge, New Delhi. 4.http://amankiasha.com/joint_statment.asp 5. Alam, I. (2006). Media and Peace in South Asia. Pakistan: Free Media Foundation. 6. Anupama, C. (2007). King of Bollywood: Shah Rukh Khan and the Seductive World of Inidan Cinema. New York: Warner Books. 7. Bhaumik, S. N. (2006). Politics of Indian War Films. Pakistan: South Asian Policy Analysis Network. 8. Holm, A. N. & Holm, A. N. (2008). Batting for Peace. Germany: VDM Publishers. Bibliography: 9. Kukreja, V. & Singh, M. P. (2008). Democracy, Development and Discontent in South Asia. New Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd. 10. Rao, S. (2010). Shah Rukh Khan: Symbol of Indian Secularism. Pakistan: South Asian Journal. (Journal # 29, named: Cinema in South Asia). 11. Saigol, R. (2006). Ideology and Curriculum in India and Pakistan. Pakistan: South Asian Free Media Association (SAFMA). 12. Gupta, A. (2006). India’s Soft Power. Indian Foreign Affairs Journal. Page # 50-52. New Delhi:

Gender Biologically Determined Essay

Drawing upon ethnographic examples from 2-3 societies. Gender being ‘biologically determined’ means that whether gender is inherited or passed down by genetics. If a person is a man or woman, (which is usually called ‘The Sex’), that is biologically determined because they inherit the chromosomes to be born a man, or to be born as a woman. In the early 1970’s sex was described by â€Å"biology as: anatomy, hormones, and physiology† (West and Zimmerman 1987). Apart from gender being a biological factor, there are other things which are not biologically determined; â€Å"Gender was an achieved status, which was constructed through psychological, cultural and social means† (West and Zimmerman1987). Hence the answer to the question â€Å"is gender biologically determined?†Is no, Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon. Gender refers to a set of roles people perform in their communities, which are their values and attitudes that people have toward man and woman (Bonvillain 2006). In this essay, the topics which would be discussed to support this argument are Gender Identity with examples of how men and women are expected to act, walk, talk and dress in a certain manner which is suitable in their society, Gender and Sexuality with the examples of culturally in-built norms of sexual behaviour, along with existing issues surrounding sexuality, and finally Gender and Status with an example of male dominance in Traditional Chinese society. Gender identity is defined in terms of how people (i.e. men and women) are supposed to behave in the social category. Their attitudes and the way the dress, talk and carry themselves in the public are encoded â€Å"in a set of cultural assumptions† which are based on the culture’s values and roles and people are expected to learn these as they are a part of that society (Bonvillain 2006). Each culture has certain ‘norms’ for gender and these ‘norms’ vary from culture to culture, most of these norms have a universal common pattern and people seem to dwell on these social constructs as they make a living based on these ideologies. â€Å"Cultural constructs are models of behaviour and attitudes that a particular culture transmits to its members. These constructs are shared beliefs and values that become taken for granted guiding principles† (Bonvillain 2006). There are so many ways that these socially constructed behaviours are exhibited in different communities, the messages about how each man and woman should act depends upon several factors such as language and religious beliefs. Men and Women were distinguished based on their clothing, what they were allowed to wear as a man and woman, hence publically signalling their genders, men wore pants and had other bodily arts such as tattoos while woman adorned dresses, jewellery and make up. This made up the very basic structure of Gender Identity. Apart from, the basic examples of gender identity, there are several other cases where women and men have unequal identities, one such case is the, Identity inequality of men and woman in family farms. In today’s world, Gender revolves around being the fact that women are less recognised than men, and are subjected to work which are in the shadows of confinement. That being the generalised factor, the study of the ‘European family farm’ only made this issue recognizable to the world. Farms were considered to be the dominant agricultural production in the capitalist countries (Brandth 2002). The study used theories of gender role and identity, explaini ng the issue in the form of discourses. In the 1990’s questions were being raised towards identity of women and men in the rural farms, these questions eventually shifted towards feminism (Brandth 2002). â€Å"Discourses are forms of power. They constitute minds, bodies, identities of individuals as parts of wider networks of power relations† (Brandth 2002). It was used in the context of giving out a meaning towards the differences of men and women, there were three discourses formulated by Hirschman, called as the exit, voice and loyalty. Women, who didn’t want to be subjected to unequal status left the system, some used their voice to protest against it, while others simply were loyal and confined themselves to the household activities. The law stated that the ‘family farm’ should be passed on from father to son, since women were considered weak and have no access and knowledge of property and agriculture. Women only came into this, only by marriage. Hence, the male leads the family into it, he allocates what job has to be done, and he participates in forums decisions, and doing so he becomes publically recognised. Since women are adaptable and flexible, their tasks are confined to household chores, and these tasks are unpaid and not recognised as productive output from them. On the other hand, men’s identities were tied to their ownership of the farms, their occupation and the productive outcome which give them status and economic income. â€Å"Real work was equated with physical tasks and women’s self image is based on the absence of such qualities† (Brandth 2002). In recent days, with the improvement of farming technologies, the female work, such as milking cows, and so on are now being done by these improvised machines, making women less efficient and thus making farming a whole masculine activity (Brandth 2002). Hence with this example it is clearly pointed out that the social construct differentiates an d distinguishes men and women. Apart from gender being differentiated by a social construct, there are factors which raised questions and studies in the society, one of such being gender and its relation to sexuality. There is always a taboo when it comes to sex, and it seems to be a common pattern in the world. Even though, we have sexual feelings and we practice them as it being a part of nature, it is also deeply influenced by culture (Bonvillain 2006). Culture teaches people what is the right thing to do, in what way, when, where and so on. There are a lot of examples where culture intervenes and states the ‘norms’ under which the people in that society or community should behave sexually. For example, sexual relationship between members of a nuclear family or distant relations is prohibited in most cultures. There are other countries which have the legal age of having sex, which are usually the Americans and Europeans, where the legal age is 16, so if a person indulges in a sexual relationship wi th a person who is below 16 it is considered against the law and will be filed for statutory rape (Bonvillain 2006). Other regions such as India, sex before marriage is considered as sin based on the cultural beliefs, whereas in American society it is inappropriate to have sex if you’re not husband or wife (Bonvillain 2006). While in some countries where sex could be considered as normal, other societies, like Islamic countries for example, any adultery committed by a male or by a female is severely punished, or most commonly stoned to death (Bonvillain 2006). But this isn’t the only issue considering sexuality, the most recent yet shocking development, is homosexuality between men and woman. â€Å"Homosexuality was considered to be a violation of the natural law† (Bonvillain 2006). People were only meant to engage in heterosexual activity (between man and woman) to reproduce. During the 1980’s indulging in homosexual activity was considered in crime, people were imprisoned when caught doing so. But in 2003 some parts of the United States, suspended the law, and made hom osexuality legal, soon European countries such as Canada, Belgium, and Netherlands passed an act which approved of homosexual weddings (Bonvillain 2006). If one digs deeper into this issue, where these debatable, one can find that it roots back from religions. Most religion disapprove of homosexuality but in religions such as Hindu, for sexuality, scriptures of homosexual activity only stated that it was normal and natural, to be attracted to the same sex (Bonvillain 2006). But in today’s society the main issue is regarding the issue of males being attracted to each other, an example of this issue is ‘Homophobia of men’. Homosexuality is considered to be a cultural construct, which apart from the ‘lesbian identities’ gave rise to the ‘gay identities’ (Herek 1986). It is common for normal men, to avoid influencing with homosexual men, as they fear what the public might think of them being judged as not ‘masculine’, where as its more normal for woman to associate with lesbians or homosexual women, as they are not being judged by the rest of the females (Herek 1986). Studies showed, that the social construction of gay identities meant that there was something psychologically wrong with that person, it was never attributed to the fact that homosexuality is more of a social construct than something being wrong with the individuals mental state (Herek 1986). Gay men are more scared to come out, or feel comfortable about their sexuality in the public than gay woman. The reason for this is because, men look for other men’s approval to gain the status of being ‘a man’ (Kimmel). â€Å"We are under the constant careful scrutiny of other men. Other men watch us, rank us, and grant our acceptance into the realm of manhood. Manhood is demonstrated of other men’s approval. It is other men who evaluate the performance† (Kimmel). As mentioned earlier, men look for other men’s approval, and because of this gay men are subjected to stigma and discrimination (Herek 1986). As a result, they develop ‘defensiveness,’ an unconscious defence mechanism (defined in psychodynamic terms). This helps them avoid or repress their homosexual tendencies (Kimmel). To summarise, gender is not biologically determined because people have the free will to choose their sexuality (i.e. they are not born being homosexuals, it is clearly a social construct). Gender roles, is defined as a set of rules or rather guidelines towards the behaviour of men and woman. The rights and duties, attitudes and behaviours of men and women constitutes of how they are culturally associated with gender (Bonvillain 2006). The works of men and women are separate, as in, men carry on doing work which they are culturally supposed to be doing and women do their work, based on what the norms of cultures tell them to do. When these two norms interact with each other, they reflect a lot of differences and changes in status, prestige and power of men and woman this is called as ‘gender relations’ (Bonvillain 2006). It is obvious that men are thought to be more superior to women as they are more power driven and physically stronger than woman. While, men get more prestigious and leadership jobs, woman are confined to their homely duties of being a house-wife or in other words a care- giver (Bonvillain 2006). This brings about the inequality of men and woman. There tasks which categorize what woman are capable of doing such as, caring for children and their husbands, cooking food, making clothes and other homely chores, while men on the other hand do more physical and dangerous tasks such as, hunting animals, conducting warfare etc, this is called division of labour (Bonvillain 2006). Gender and status are the most recent conflict and the most studied topic in today’s society. Gender equality, happens when both the male and female agree to equal rights and behaviours. Gender inequality happens when the male and female do not agree to equal rights, attitudes and behaviour (Bonvillain 2006). An example of this, is male dominance in china, the male adult, was the head of the family and they expressed their dominance over their children and wives. Traditional Chinese cultures had more Patriarchal gender relations (Bonvillain 2006). In conclusion, the question â€Å"is gender biologically determined?† is incorrect, even though gender has a biological definition, gender is mostly socially defined in this context. The tasks or norms which each gender (i.e. male and female) is supposed to perform in the society, is based on a social construct. They are not born to be who there are, instead these social constructions are in-built within them since childhood. Since they taught to act and behave in a specific way which is culturally approved. They choose to be what sexuality appeals to them and what each individualistic gender they are taught to be. Hence ‘Gender’ is strongly driven by culture. REFERENCES: West,C and Zimmerman, Don. 1987. Doing Gender. Sociologists for Women in Society 1(2): 125-155 Herek, Gregory. 1986.on Heterosexual Masculinity. American Behavioural Scientist 29(5): 563-577 Brandth, Berit. 2002. Gender Identity in European Family Farming: A Literature Review. European Society for Rural Sociology 42(3): 181-200 Kimmel, Michael. Masculinity as homophobia: Fear, Shame and Silence in the Constructions of Gender Identity. Bonvillain, Nancy. 2006. Chapter 10, â€Å"Gender† from Cultural Anthropology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Pp. 251-282. ISBN: 0-13-045545-8

Zara Is A Modern Day Fashion Business Model - 960 Words

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